Bones of contention

Postcolonial Vietnam is characterized by the interplay between necropolitics and necrosociality, as practiced respectively militarized state a society that traditionally maintains relations with dead. This key to understanding conflicts in over bones of unidentified war On one hand, such can challenge state's sovereignty when it assumes responsibility taking care them. other they exert strong power living, prompting quests place them right kinship sociopolitical orders—or erase their memory. was made dramatically evident 2011 set human remains, allegedly belonging fallen soldier 1979 Sino-Vietnamese border war—a conflict both sides’ governments prefer forget. These remains illuminated contention governing dead postwar Vietnam. Moreover, tension anthropological inquiry about ontology remains. [human bones, dead, war, necropolitics, Vietnam] Việt Nam thời hậu thuộc đia được đặc trưng bởi sự tương tác ràng buộc giữa chủ nghĩa chính trị “độc quyền sinh sát” của một thể quân hóa và xã hội có truyền thống nhấn mạnh mối quan hệ người âm với dương. Sự này là mấu chốt trọng để làm rõ những mâu thuẫn xung quanh vấn đề hài cốt vô danh do chiến tranh lại. Một mặt, bộ này, nếu về liệt sĩ, thách thức quốc gia khi cầm thực hiện trách nhiệm chăm sóc chúng. Mặt khác, mang theo chúng sức tiềm ẩn khiến sống phải lập tức vụ định phận đúng trật tự huyết thống, họ hàng hội—hoặc tìm cách xóa bỏ ký ức Năm 2011, nghịch lý sáng tỏ qua câu chuyện tại Yên Bái cho lính tử trận trong cuộc biên giới Việt-Trung năm 1979, mà cả Trung Quốc đều muốn quên đi. Không chỉ tiêu biểu chấp thường xảy việc quản sĩ ở chiến, trường hợp còn ví dụ điển hình luận nhân học bản con người. [hài cốt, lại, Trung, độc sát, đã mất, Nam] In Vietnamese news media went into frenzy The supposedly belonged were said have been stolen on train 1989. After thief abandoned them, buried an unmarked grave town Bái. Lying 100 kilometers south 180 north Hanoi (see Figure 1), major resettlement area for refugees fleeing towns villages during period (1979−89). story these which I stumbled while surfing Internet, startled me because my maternal grandparents among who had settled Not only that, lived very close station from 1980 1997, garden plot contained (bộ danh). immediately called grandfather, confirmed most story's details—and his part it. He added although he grandmother garden, did not know what happened since left town. Having many questions neither grandfather nor could answer, finally managed go June 2012, accompanied mother. We stayed her younger sister, aunt Thắng, two weeks.1 When we arrived, however, learned exhumed markers removed nearly half year earlier Figures 2 3). At first, local people tried speak distrusted desire more bones’ story, suspecting being journalist or crowds overrun But after recognizing mother sister remembering grandparents, opened up us. It turned out national sensation thrown chaos. Before 2009, again deteriorated, sporadically claimed be “contacted” spirit. Many thereafter possessed this Fortune-telling worship services organized daily, drawing growing gravesite. Soon, hundreds journalists, military officials, spirit mediums, telepaths all flooded sleepy town, digging stories bones. early spring Bái's municipal authorities, fed constant intrusions chaos grown around grave, secretly elsewhere. joined army marginalized, unrecognized spirits, popping minor larger séances area. My unexpected encounter uncovering social life spirit, and, perhaps all, family's role story—all has deep impression me. years trip Bái, continued research memory politics investigate nationwide movement find, identify, cases return hometowns soldiers died recent Vietnam's 20th-century wars.2 undertaking research, began question, What so special Bái? filled millions are thought belong soldiers. Why particular stir much political activity, far beyond locality where appeared? To answer questions, must map transformation “matter place” (Douglas 2000, 36) powerful symbol subversive Doing illuminates but also contentious process As person once lived, possess scholars “emotive materiality affective presence” (Krmpotich, Fontein, Harries 2010, 371)—a capacity evoke emotional reactions, including empathy devotion. material presence led spiritual possession—another manifestation past—that end removed. shows essential, too resonance provoked. thus dual ontology, spiritual, explains “excessive alterity indeterminacy” (Filippucci et al. 211) potentialities” (Fontein 2014, 115) provoke reactions evade will marginalize Arensen 2017; Krmpotich, 2010). metonymically refers whole Known linh (lit. “spirit bone”), essence person's totality. Thus, dealing address continuity material. Only way understand volatility Unlike Vietnam, powerfully reminded deadly war. Especially context renewed tensions “affective presence”—their spirit—animated war's politics. latter especially sensitive given took close, brotherly communist countries.3 signing treaty normalize 1991, China agreed mention again. Popular remembrance efforts deemed anti-state suppressed, sometimes violently, countries. changed April China's state-owned Phoenix Weekly magazine published issue commemorate 30th anniversary. angrily viewed violation deal prelude Chinese territorial aggression soon followed. May unilaterally declared almost entire South Sea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan (MacLean 2010; Thayer authorities responded lifting ban discussing its impact quickly reinstated it, critiques control past decades (Vũ 2014). With censorship, popular demands publicly became issues. interviewed former neighbors, cadres 2011−12, clearly well aware changing currents narratives shared therefore memories abandoned, location unknown family, principle no different those missing civilians anti-colonial Vietnam-Indochina wars, likewise haunt living appear, demand ritual care, inspire action (Kwon 2008; Lincoln 2015). however might be, find elaborate system commemoration, deprived preferred official silencing unintended consequence: up. fallen, survivors found medium through defy consider desecration own dead's “ultimate expression sovereignty,” theorist Achille Mbembe (2003, 11) argues, “resides dictate may live die.” defines concerns “those figures whose central project struggle autonomy generalized instrumentalization existence destruction bodies populations” (14; italics original). perspective helps us rooted rational choice collective violence. allows see instance, “as means achieving exercising kill” (12). Imagining form urges ask, “What life, death, body (in wounded slain body)?” While concept critique tendency naturalize sovereignty, useful comparing modalities production management (Ferrándiz Robben 2015; Stepputat symbolism; death rituals beliefs, ideas constitutes “proper burial”; connections corpses manipulated wider international contexts manipulation; reassessing rewriting creating retrieving “memory.” (Verdery 1999, 3) case Like counterparts world (e.g., Bacigalupo 2018; Ferrándiz 2013; Gal 1991; Verdery 1999; Watson 1994; Winter 2017), modern rests on, things, warfare bodies. particular, however: recently wrest statehood imperial powers (first France, then United States), since, society—including dead—has thoroughly militarized. entails sacralizing soldiers, criminalizing enemy marginalizing outside categories. produced population deeply invested engaged Jieun Kim (2016) calls “necrosociality,” enduring, intense, intimate relationship particularly interplay, people's caring characterizes produce nationalist agenda fabric honors 1.2 million fighting establishment preservation title martyr (liệt sĩ). Their hailed sacred, ultimate, heroic sacrifice; vows remember “forever” reward “utmost care.” cult started postcolonial nation's history. 1947, declaring independent Democratic Republic first Indochina War begun, Ho Chi Minh July 27 annual Invalids Martyrs Day. Memorial holidays, public ceremonies, commemorative rituals, statues common ways focus attention sacrifices inscribe landscape (Bayly Kwon Since martyrs either state-designated cemeteries, families ceaseless rebury (sending home necessary). Several killed three successive wars fought 20th century. if lucky enough counted relegated surviving kin bereaved communities. wake face unattended graves, seen proliferation dynamic forms reciprocity localized DiGregorio Salemink 2007; 2008, Leshkowich Malarney 2002; Schwenkel Sorrentino 2017). Much shares locate, send martyrs, yet reminds others neglect, outright banishing, become assertive carrying widely burial-and-reburial custom, central. driven ingrained beliefs necessity (Shohet 2018), suffered bad death. They carry even contradicts will.4 economic reform (Đổi Mới) motion 1986 further changes Symbolic gestures honoring appear empty inadequately families’ requests retrieve loved ones battlefields. Other question arbitrary 1990s citizens taken matters hands private bone-finding missions According traditional belief, contacted possession soul calling. practices, considers superstition anti-science, banned, legalization followed early-1990s success mediums discreetly helped needy locate relatives. Under pressures, shifted position, allowing search (Sorrentino officialize employment religious actors, Center Research Human Capabilities (CRHC) established 1996 under indirect administration Ministry Science, Technology, Environment. soften contradiction atheist secularism policy toleration renamed persons abilities specialists “in extrasensory perception” (Schlecker Endres Traditional methods contacting souls searching granted scientific legitimacy adoption foreign terms “extrasensory” (ngoại cảm), “telepathy” (thần giao “parapsychology” (cận tâm lý), via Russian New Age writings blur line science pseudoscience. recognition CRHC's contribution niche finders country. gave birth forensics, defined finding identifying (Viện Khoa Học Hình 2011). sanctioning marriage (traditional) religion, similar developments countries (Palmer Yurchak 2015), plunged feverish telepathic spirits connected throughout country's Although ambivalent toward fever, serious evidenced massive investment DNA-based forensics pursue goal (Abbott 2016). Officials moral duty men women sacrificed lives aspect practice sovereignty. Nevertheless, effort dug touchy issues reconciliation, North South. Communist Party prides itself derives exclusive claim leadership resistance against invaders. Any voice challenges prohibits any commemoration events anathema party. For consistently punished anyone dares discourse Americans call Resistance America (1955−75). Northern Liberation Army southern partisans memorialized heroes, dismissed traitors officially banned receiving consoling ritual. Heonik (2008), brought ghosts, “heroes” “traitors,” back familiar familial, polarization disappeared. Formerly divided communities unified divisions longer mattered. describes reconciliation subject Kwon's study, optimistic narrative places himself admits rendering unity does extend horizon “enemy” ghosts. today. still categorized “dead enemies,” burial grounds often considered zones,” avoid (Robert 2014), enemies’ “ungrievable” (Butler 2004, unworthy forensic care. Nonetheless, remain potent sources actions, locally transnationally. interview City December 2019, Catholic priest told long continue neglected, never reconciled.5 move nationalism (and preparation war), American literary scholar Thanh Nguyễn (2016, 17) argues “just memory,” enemy, humane inhumane aspects. memory” precisely sees weakening hold people. ideological allow truth seeking personal past, listening voices grave. peculiar complicated inexhaustible source power. spoke spirituality how explain empathy, connection, reverence, ability control. descriptions reminiscent 12) necropolitical between, “petrification” “strange coolness” other, “their stubborn mean, signifying something.” excessive, simultaneous intimacy render unstable categorization friend foe. Finn (2014, 26), “Human metonymic than metaphorical,” signal “presence” readily meaning. Processes turning metaphors, “the dead,” “contingent contested.” indeed striking represent deceased form. refuse marginalized unidentifiable show included “martyrs,” recognized heroes inclusion would bring repressed wants Just slippery difficult pin down. showed at edge grandparents’ locals’ sympathy aroused fragility vulnerability, shape size, pitiful painful history having home. Thus protect necrosociality referred earlier; crucial significance society, differs state. arrival 1989 animated processes mourning kept domain until then, dictated erasure silenced prepare normalization China. followed, simply blank canvas agendas—they defied various attempts definition identification treat objects Following multiple roles played reveals modes interaction citizens, subjects (Wagner 2013, few accounts recovery organizations conduct searches rather agency themselves. needs power, efficacy (linh thiêng). There sharp ends begins. intertwining makes possible connection absent vividly present. Bones regenerate reproduce societies (Bloch Parry 1982), acting actualize (Mueggler 2017, 6). intense personal, daily interactions And effects destabilizing threaten sovereign founding myths transform wishes. late afternoon new travel bag plot, next traffic light northern gate Bai station. Inside she small, old, green cotton blanket, typical People's Army, red cloth wrapped skull arm leg bottom small knife porcelain bowl. She discovery incident occurred days earlier, cries old man middle main railway caught passengers. recalled, number poor farmer faraway province withdrawn savings make son, battle (whether fresh just bones) cannot legally transportation without permit, obtainable usually lengthy costly bureaucratic process.6 Without necessary time, money, connections, father decided take son's carefully purchased market. bag's expensive look father's possessive guarding some idea onto something really valuable. day's ride, before entered station, toilet. returned, gone. Desperate, walked down crying help, success. stopped, advised him stay gotten off there disposed somewhere discovered inside. Because illegally train, dare file police report. fruitless searching, home, knowing same day garden. understandable reasons, extremely purple blue swollen corpse, humid morning August 1953 hanging house, occupied revolutionary unit directing campaign landlords, starting family. certainly experience fled horror rafting Red River, thousands residents Lào Cai, raise young family 1953. floating catch raft, stopped journey village near From temporary house riverbank, watch countless corpses, Vietnamese, bloated decomposed, float ongoing battles upstream. whirlpool wharf washed ashore. grandma's villagers collect bury eventually faces half-eaten fish, broken skulls, legs arms, smell decayed flesh, stuff nightmares. 1983 packed township. 1980s, grandma peace turbulent life. relaxed, shrine Mother Goddess deities Four Palace tradition whom believed wandering relatives decade earlier. already left, sent word discovery, hoping hear placed rewrapped bag, table put found. A couple nearby neighbors assemble simple offerings, lit incense pray act comfort homeless (Kim 2016), night, wind fanned fire burning incense, spreading morning, gran